George Washington, James Madison, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, all these giants of history have entered the pantheon of immortality as founders of the United States of America. These were the men, the statesmen, who created new political institutions and a modern system of representative democracy from scratch. They have been described by one historian as ‘the most remarkable generation of political talent in American history.’ However, there is one name missing from this list, arguably the most important of them all – Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804).
If Madison was the father of the American Constitution and Washington the father of the American state, Hamilton was the undisputed father of the American government and system of government. The most enigmatic of all the Founding Fathers, he, more than any other, marked the time of the new country’s political and economic birth and set it on the path it continues to follow today.
The summary of his achievements – Washington’s lifelong right-hand man, military and foreign policy strategist, revolutionary and general, first Secretary of the Treasury, founder of the Federalist Party, the National Bank, brilliant lawyer, constitutional lawyer, author of the Federalist Papers, without which the adoption of the US Constitution would almost certainly not have happened, founder of the Coast Guard, the newspaper, the military academy, and the list goes on – testifies to a man of boundless abilities and energy.
A self-taught and self-taught British immigrant from a Caribbean colony, he arrived in New York at the age of 15, and just a few years later he was Washington’s golden boy and closest associate. George Washington, Commander-in-Chief of the young American army, needed someone to “think for me and carry out my orders” in the long and difficult war for independence. Hamilton’s rise was meteoric in every field in which he was active.
In addition, this out-of-office US President also created America’s first public political sex scandal. It may have been the one that took the presidency away from him. It certainly left an indelible stain on the personality of an otherwise devoted family man and a loving husband. Even his death was dramatic – he died after a duel with his eternal rival, then Vice-President of the United States, Aaron Burr. Their duel is considered one of the most famous duels of all time.
While much academic ink has been spilled on Hamilton’s account, the general public has had only a passing acquaintance with him, mainly through the more scandalous aspects of his life, a love affair, political rivalries and a tragic duel. Two hundred years after his death, however, he has, rather unexpectedly, been given a place of honour in the entertainment industry, and today there is not an American who does not know Hamilton’s life story in detail. Thanks to the 2015 Broadway hit musical Hamilton and a true cultural phenomenon, he has become the most celebrated founding father of the United States of America. Today, Alexander Hamilton is a cultural pop icon. The musical also saved his place on the ten-dollar note, as there were already discussions about replacing the portrait that adorns the note.
A closer look into his life is truly like a suspense novel, with a perfect mix of hard work, success, greatness, intrigue, love and, ultimately, tragedy. His story is an American success story. He rose from utter misery to become the creator of a new American nation. No wonder, then, that Hamilton has made America mad. At the same time, there has been a growing interest among Americans of all generations in the history of their country.
This Broadway show portrays Alexander Hamilton primarily as a hero of the American dream, embodying the birth of the American state. His slip-ups and mistakes are therefore easier to overlook.
Alexander Hamilton – The child prodigy who wants war
Hamilton had a difficult childhood. He was raised illegitimately by his mother and brother on the Caribbean island of St Croix until his untimely death. The divorcee, who had eloped with a Scottish immigrant, was branded a social misfit and her two children “disgusting punks”. So said the court order at the time of the mother’s death, which deprived the children of the right to inherit her meagre possessions.
Alexander was just 11 years old. The illegitimate birth haunted him all his life, as it was later blamed as a moral failing. By the time he was one of the most influential Americans, his political opponents – Jefferson, Madison, Burr – called him “immigrant” instead of his first name, claiming that his origins would never allow him to understand the true American spirit. John Adams, the second American President, had a whole range of insults for him – pamgee, Scotch crown, Creole punk, foreigner.
He started his work experience before the age of 10, as a clerk in an export-import company in a bustling Caribbean port. The trade in sugar and other exotic goods between Europe, America and the Caribbean was booming and young Alex watched the arrivals and departures of numerous ships on a daily basis, registering goods, calculating values, negotiating prices, learning how exchange rates and currency systems worked. All this knowledge he painstakingly accumulated, unaware that it would one day be useful to him in the design of American economic policy.
He was also a bookworm, and throughout his life he followed his own advice, first to his friends and later to his children: ‘Spend all your free time reading’. Philosophy, history, economics, classical literature, poetry, there was no field that did not interest him. He would spend hours drowning himself in books, writing out important information and his own thoughts.
He also witnessed the brutal slave trade, a central activity in the Caribbean. As many as 90% of the local population were slaves. Later, he was an ardent advocate of the abolition of slavery and one of the few founding fathers who believed in racial equality.
He was so skilled in the trading business that he often ran the business himself in the owner’s absence. But for an ambitious and capable young man, the routine was burdensome and the small Caribbean was oppressive. He dreamed of challenges where he could prove himself. In his oldest surviving letter, when he was just twelve, he wrote: “My ambition is such that I despise the clerical work to which fate has condemned me. I would gladly risk my life … if only there were war.” His wish was soon realised.
When a hurricane swept across the island of St Croix, leaving utter devastation in its wake, a young Hamilton published his debut book in the local newspaper, describing the tragedy. It was so literary that local leaders and businessmen recognised the young man’s exceptional talent, raised the money for his tuition and sent him out into the world. To study medicine in New York. All in the hope that one day he would return and become an asset to the local community. But a much more glittering fate awaited Alexander.
He arrived in New York in 1772 on the eve of the escalation of the American Revolution. And immediately became one of its main actors.
I hate procrastination
The American Revolution, which turned into the War of Independence from the British Crown (1775-1783), began as an anti-colonial movement as early as 1765. The permanent settlement of North America dates back to the early 17th century and the English did not even have a regular army there until the mid-18th century. Nor did the administration of the resulting colonies follow a predetermined or uniform plan. They differed from one another as if they were independent states – some of varying size, some republican, some puritan, some pro-slavery, some anti-slavery, some privately, even family-owned.
All these differences in the DNA of the individual colonies later posed a serious problem for the ratification of the common constitution and for compromise, and continue to play an important role in the cultural and socio-political fabric of the USA today.
As long as the English were preoccupied with wars in Europe and it looked as if the colonies in North America would not be particularly profitable, they were not particularly interested in them. But inventive, adventurous and enterprising settlers soon began to accumulate wealth and develop their own economies. So the greedy English, whose public coffers were empty after the Seven Years’ War with France (1756-1763), imposed new and ever higher taxes.
Many colonists had no particular attachment to the mother country anyway, as their immigration was mostly due to religious persecution on home soil, deprivation and poverty, and often criminals were sent across the ocean. The naked British often referred to their colonies in North America as the dustbin of the British Empire. The temperature of relations was approaching boiling point as taxes rose.
Boston, Massachusetts, was the birthplace of the Rebellion, and its harbour was where the hated English collected taxes on the many goods arriving daily in America. A turning point came in December 1773, when the rebels attacked three ships and threw off 342 cases of tea on which they refused to pay taxes. The main argument of the rebels was that they did not owe taxes to a government in which they were not represented. No American representative sat in the English Parliament.
The event that became known as the Boston Tea Party was the central trigger for the Revolutionary War. The thirteen hitherto barely connected colonies were finally united in their hatred and opposition to the British Crown. In 1774, the First Continental Congress was convened, with representatives agreeing how to stand up to the British and boycott taxes. George Washington was unanimously elected Commander-in-Chief of the army.
Hamilton studied diligently at the elite King’s College (now Columbia) in New York during the early years of the Revolution and impressed with his endless learning abilities. At the same time, he kept a close eye on revolutionary developments and began attending public meetings in support of the revolt. As was his custom, he carefully considered the arguments of both camps, the Loyalists (loyalists to the British Crown) and the Patriots (pro-independence), and decided that the latter were right. He read revolutionary literature, wrote pamphlets and soon distinguished himself in public speaking. Hamilton was a master of the spoken and written word. A man of Anglo-Scottish-French roots, he became a spokesman for the American Revolution.
When the British occupation temporarily closed the university gates, he organised his own company and immediately came to the fore as a brave soldier and tactical commander. In true Hamiltonian fashion, in a short space of time he had thoroughly researched existing military science, delving into war tactics, artillery, naval warfare, cavalry.
Armed with knowledge and a bayonet, he then proved himself in combat to such an extent that, within a few months, he was noticed by the great George Washington.
A complicated camaraderie
Washington needed all the help it could get. The scales of the Revolutionary War were tipped heavily in favour of the British at the start, because the American troops were untrained and inexperienced. At the same time, they were plagued by administrative impotence. The power to recruit and finance the army was in the hands of individual states, little burdened by the common good. The British army was more numerous, disciplined and well equipped.
General Washington invited Hamilton into his circle of closest associates and personal assistants. He immediately exceeded all expectations and became his principal secretary and confidant. He was in charge of the General’s correspondence and also wrote his speeches and military instructions. Despite their different characters, the two men respected each other and Washington could not do without the young man. While Hamilton addressed the twenty-five years older superior as Your Excellency, he warmly called the assistant my boy. Such closeness was rather unusual for Washington, who was otherwise considered a very formal, strict, not particularly sociable, at times even haughty man, who rarely made friendly contacts with those around him. Throughout his life, he cherished his privacy, but at the same time he was loyal to his followers, and he never forgot Hamilton’s loyalty either. Years later, when Hamilton’s love affair came to light, Washington stood by him wholeheartedly.
It is difficult to quantify the true extent of Hamilton’s influence on Washington and his decisions, both during the war and during the General’s presidency, but it is generally accepted that Hamilton was the second most influential man in the land for more than two decades.
On the Fourth of July 1776, the separation between the former mother country and its thirteen North American colonies was formalised and the Americans proclaimed the Declaration of Independence. The British invaded New York that same summer, claiming victory after victory against the American army. The latter retreated hopelessly westwards for the first few years, and bottomed out between 1777 and 1778. At the famous Valley Forge near Philadelphia, after two more lost battles, the cold, typhus-ridden, malnourished army spent six months regaining its strength. Then, at last, French, Spanish and Dutch aid began to arrive at an accelerated pace, and the epilogue of the war was written by the Americans.
These were Hamilton’s most formative years. He saw first-hand what powers Congress lacked. It had no power to raise public funds through taxation, and could not provide food, clothing and arms for the army. Hamilton thought about how to save the young country and the nation through reforms. He spent hours bent over papers with Washington, planning war movements and discussing the shortcomings of the army and the administration. Often they even slept in the same room. This not only made Hamilton jealous, but also earned him his first political enemies. But they too often succumbed to his charm, charisma and intellect. Despite his unprecedented zeal for work, he was always sociable, witty and engaging.
But the US Army General Staff was not a battlefield, and Hamilton had not had the opportunity to lead troops into battle since his promotion to Washington’s inner circle. This was his greatest desire and he regularly made requests to Washington to be allowed into battle. But he was afraid to lose his most able adviser on the battlefield. The relationship between them was becoming strained and they both stubbornly stood their ground. Until the headstrong Alexander Hamilton resigned. He withdrew from the revolutionary scene for a while, but not for long. Washington relented and gave him command of the battalion at the decisive Battle of Yorktown in 1781.
In a daring night attack, Hamilton’s troops opened the battle and took the British army by surprise. Its commander was the first to charge, bayonet first. Yorktown marked the beginning of the end of the American War of Independence, and Hamilton was elevated overnight to the status of national hero.
On 3 September 1783, Great Britain granted independence to the United States of America (13 colonies, mainly in the eastern part of what is now the USA). This was just the first step on the road to the creation of a new nation and state. Its leaders realised that it needed a constitution and independent political institutions. Differences began to emerge between the supporters of a strong central government and the weaker states, and those who wanted to keep most of the power at the local level. The main actor in this year-long struggle was Alexander Hamilton.
At the same time, it was time to focus on his private life.
Entry to New York High Society
Studying, warfare, writing, concern for the fate of the nation, all these things never deterred Alexander Hamilton from paying attention to beautiful women. Of course, there is no doubt why the flirtatious man had many a high society lady’s head spinning, until he too was struck by Cupid’s arrow. Even during the war, he was completely captivated by Elisabeth Schuyler, the daughter of the prominent and wealthy Dutch descendant, revolutionary general and politician Philip Schulyer. A friend declared: “Hamilton is doomed.”
Eliza was the perfect life companion for Alexander. Beautiful, smart, intelligent, well-informed, reliable, loyal, kind, rich. Her sisters were like that too, and with the elder Angelica in particular, Hamilton established such a warm relationship that rumours of a love triangle between Eliza, Angelica and Alexander continued to circulate until his death.
The mutual attraction between Angelica and Alexander has been an open secret and there is no indication that his wife, Elisa, is in any way disturbed by it. She also adored her sister. Angelica once wrote in a letter to Eliza about ‘my dear, you know I mean your husband, for I love him very much and if you were as giving as the ancient Romans were, you would lend me a little of him’.
Hamilton wrote to Angelica: “Every evening you are the last topic of conversation between Betsey (as he affectionately called Eliza) and me, and every morning you are the first. We talk about you, praise you and pray for you.” Be that as it may, Hamilton impressed the whole Schulyer clan and my father-in-law immediately recognised the talent in him. The Hamiltons and the Schuleyers were an extremely close-knit family, and Alexander filled the emotional gap of an unhappy childhood.
A successful military career was Hamilton’s springboard, and marriage cemented his position at the top of the young American elite. The then family man said goodbye to the army in 1782, completing his years of study and opening his own law practice in a record time of six months. He became one of the best lawyers in the city, defending only those whose innocence he was convinced of. His proverbial obsession with detail was particularly useful in the courtroom. There was no piece of information that he did not find useful, and he kept up the habit of taking notes of all sorts of random information throughout his life.
At the same time, he became increasingly politically active. He spent most of his time thinking about the financial situation of the new but impoverished country, tax policies, sources of income, loans. He proposed new taxes on agriculture, trade, manufacturing, a new currency and paper money, all of which led logically to the creation of a central bank a few years later. In 1784, he wrote the charter of the first New York bank, The Bank of New York, and became a founding member.
He had time and energy left to found the Society for the Promotion of the Emancipation of Slaves, which, among other things, drew up a list of all the slaves who had been freed, so that they could remain in freedom without worry. Hamilton also fought against the slave trade, the cruelty of which had haunted him since his youth in the Caribbean islands, the breeding ground of this vile activity. He also campaigned actively for black education, believing that the source of inequality lay primarily in unequal social positions rather than in the inherent inferiority of blacks. His efforts helped to abolish slavery in New York and Virginia before the end of the 18th century.
Because of the shortcomings of the existing system, he sought to convene a new assembly of all the states, empowered to improve the existing system of government. At that time, there were only the so-called Articles of Confederation, which delineated the powers of the federal government and those of the individual states. “We have neither an army, nor a finance ministry, nor a government,” he complained. He was concerned about the impotence of the Continental Congress, the forerunner of the Federal Congress, which was virtually without executive power. Anything it passed still had to be ratified by the individual states. He was at the centre of a state-building debate that was to shape the future and the definitive structure of the country.
The American Constitution and the Federalist Papers
The most famous Constitutional Convention (known in the American context as the Convention) of all time met in Philadelphia between May and September 1787, the very place where the Declaration of Independence had been signed a decade earlier. Its task was officially to improve the so-called Articles of Confederation, a kind of constitution that did not provide answers to the challenges and difficulties the country faced after the War of Independence. The end result – the Constitution of the United States of America as we know it today.
Delegate Hamilton, as one of the main instigators of the Convention, represented New York and was chaired by none other than George Washington, one of the few universally respected politicians of the period. In general, the Convention brought together almost the entire American political elite, or as the missing Jefferson wrote from France, where he was serving as ambassador: “It is indeed a veritable assembly of demigods.” This added significant weight and legitimacy to the Convention.
Most delegates were in principle in favour of a more robust federal system to replace the weakly cohesive confederation. But important differences arose between the larger and smaller federal states, as the latter feared the loss of sovereignty and the tyranny of the majority. After long and arduous months of debate, 39 delegates out of 55 finally signed the constitution, which became the basis of the federal structure and the model for modern democratic systems.
The US Constitution established representative democracy. It was the 32-year-old Alexander Hamilton who, in a dramatic five-hour speech, argued for a compromise between the proposal of the larger states, which wanted representation based on population, and the smaller states, which wanted equal representation.
Even for him, the final compromise was not ideal, but the fate of the nation hung in the balance and, in his view, failure to adopt the Constitution would have led to anarchy, civil war and the gradual secession of the individual states. The adoption of the Constitution was a way out of the paralysis of the government. The Constitution now had to be ratified by nine of the thirteen states. Hamilton’s lone signature under the State of New York would be a clear harbinger of the struggle to come. The other two New York delegates walked out of the convention in protest. Indeed, it was New York, along with Virginia, that was the main opponent of a strong federal government, being rich, economically strong and self-sufficient, with distinctly powerful local politicians.
Alexander Hamilton devoted the next seven months of his life to one of the greatest achievements of his life – the ratification of the new Constitution. Like all life projects, he approached it with the perfect blend of dedication, energy and knowledge. With the New York newspapers full of factually inaccurate unconstitutional articles, he decided to defend the Constitution as best he could. With political writings.
He recruited like-minded and distinguished associates as collaborators, but in the end the vast majority of the collection of eighty-five essays was written by him (51) and James Madison (probably 29). Under the pseudonym Publius, they published the Federalist Papers, a monumental exposition of the new constitution and one of the best works of classical political thought in general. They explained the purpose and spirit of the Constitution, dealt with each article individually and answered all criticisms in a detailed and impartial manner.
They explained the importance of strong federal power and, in particular, how it is nonetheless effectively limited by the Constitution. The new US Constitution did indeed introduce a centralised government, but its separation into three branches was crucial. The influence of each of these branches was curbed by legislative checks and balances, a system which is still the cornerstone of American politics today and which means that power is limited in relation to each other.
They also spoke frankly about the dilemmas of the founding fathers and called for national unity and trust in the nobility of the intentions of the framers of the Constitution. The Federalist Papers are a unique masterpiece of political journalism.
But Hamilton could not silence all his critics, many of whom accused him of monarchical and dictatorial tendencies. Rumours spread that he wanted to abolish the republic and the Congress and install Washington as dictator. In the end, the Constitution was ratified by all thirteen states. In some places, it was a hair’s breadth, and we will never know to what extent the Federalist Papers are responsible for New York being part of the USA today.
Architect of US financial and economic regulation
It was not until 1789 that the USA got its first President and its first government. As a great hero of the War of Independence, George Washington was the logical choice for this honourable position. For him, Alexander Hamilton, one of the most able and loyal men to Washington, was the logical choice as a cabinet member. “/…/ I can say this much about him, knowing him intimately, there are very few men of his age who have the knowledge that he has, and none whose spirit is more devoted to the common good, and who surpass him in honesty and exceptional virtue.”
Hamilton is appointed as the first Secretary of the Treasury of the United States of America. He also served as Washington’s Chief of Staff. Otherwise, the cabinet was made up of political heavyweights, such as John Adams as Vice-President and Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State.
Hamilton’s most important position at that moment was in government. The country was bankrupt and, at the same time, without any system of levy collection to finance the enormous public debt. With only a handful of officials, he set about creating the ministry, its departments and its powers. He again worked day and night while his family grew. When this man found time for his family, his writing, his work and even his social life is a mystery.
Anyway, the public debt problem was first on his priority list and he tackled it by imposing taxes on virtually everything. He drew up a detailed list in his own handwriting, including toys, dolls (“both dressed and undressed”) … Hamilton was obsessed with detail.
His quick and efficient decision-making proved not only his political genius, but also his administrative genius, and soon his ministry was the largest and most influential. When he set up the tax and debt repayment system – the federal government took over the debt of all the states, giving him control over their finances – he knew he had to revive the stagnant economy. He needed rich investors. And their trust.
He took the Old Continent as his model, studied the French and English banking systems and came to a clear conclusion. The US needs a national central bank, with money flowing into it, including through the purchase of government bonds by rich Americans. He was thus branded as a supporter of big capital, merchants and industry, the industries in which he saw economic progress. But nearly eighty percent of Americans were still farmers.
But to make the whole system work, the currency, the mint, the paper money, the exchange rates, the export and import policies and, last but not least, the postal system had to be put in place. He became an expert in all these areas – he even wrote in his regular reports to Congress about the recommended content of certain metals in coins, their shape, weight and so on! He also thought of a Coast Guard, which would be in charge of controlling the sea-trafficking – in this way, the country lost a large share of import duties. The US Coast Guard, in its almost unchanged form, still operates today in a “Hamiltonian” way.
The Minister had very clear and unambiguous plans, which he successfully implemented one after the other. But his ambition has also steadily accumulated powerful opponents. The concentration of power in the federal government and especially in his ministry was seen by some as a threat to the young American republic and by others as a despot in republican guise, a modern Julius Caesar or an American Napoleon. Even Madison, with whom he wrote the Federalist Papers, turned against him.
For ordinary people, Hamilton’s taxes were the most controversial. They wondered: was it not the American Revolution and the War of Independence that were the answer to the unjust taxes of the British Crown? But with an empty treasury, there was no future for the country. But the introduction of the tax on spirits led to a popular uprising in the countryside that has gone down in history as the Whisky Rebellion. “Spirits are too cheap and therefore people are drinking too much, which is regrettable both in terms of health, public morals and economics.” After three years of rebellion, Hamilton again had the last word.
In 1795, the US already had sound and stable public finances and all the elements of a modern financial system. Public debt was under control. The dollar was strong. Many corporations had already been created. In all areas, they could compete with the successful European countries. In 1789, none of this was even on the horizon.
Everyone agreed then, and everyone agrees today – Hamilton is the undisputed father of the US financial system. But his personal wallet was empty! The irony could hardly be greater. Having given up all other sources of income, and with a ministerial job that paid a pittance, he was, in his own words, “poorer than when I started in office…/…I helped to establish sound public finances, and now I’m going to take care of my own a little bit.”
He resigned from his position and returned to his law practice, his loving wife and his family.
First public political sex scandal in the USA
Up to this point, Hamilton’s story reads like a fairy tale. All that’s missing is a happy ending. Which there wasn’t.
One day in 1791, a young woman knocked on the door of the Hamilton home and asked to speak to Alexander Hamilton alone. She asked him for money and help from her violent and exploitative husband. Her name was Maria Reynolds. That same evening, he snuck out of the house and visited the young beauty at home with a few notes in his pocket. She took him to her bedroom and one of the most unusual and high-profile love affairs began.
Until then, Alexander Hamilton had been morally upright, both in his personal and public life. He and Eliza already had four children and, despite his very active life, he spent a great deal of time with them and was particularly keen on their upbringing and education. He became completely familiar with Reynolds, and when the family went on holiday she was a regular guest in his double bed.
But this was not just a love affair of the kind that fills the pages of the biographies of men of Hamilton’s calibre – it was a well thought out and planned blackmail of a public figure. Maria and her husband James Reynolds were conniving dupes who together concocted a plot against Hamilton. James was therefore well aware of the affair and was often at home during Hamilton’s visits. The impoverished and indebted gambler and speculator then regularly blackmailed Hamilton, demanding small sums from him, and Hamilton even invoiced him for each one. The lowly Reynolds was in effect selling his wife.
Of course, Hamilton quickly became suspicious of the Reynolds’ true intentions, but continued the affair for a year anyway. But he had no idea of the dimensions it would take on five years later. Reynolds had already informed Alexander Hamilton’s fiercest opponents of his alleged dirty dealings as soon as the affair ended. The affair was not about his wife, but about the Minister’s involvement in speculating with public money. He had evidence of this – receipts signed by the Minister. Hamilton was outraged by such allegations and immediately admitted his marital infidelity rather than allow any doubts about his professional integrity. The scandal was temporarily hushed up and did not become public.
But one of those who knew his dark secret was his eternal rival, Thomas Jefferson. At the end of Washington’s second term in 1797, there was a fierce struggle for supremacy on the political stage, and Jefferson knew how best to thwart Hamilton. Suddenly, the juicy details of Hamilton’s sin were leaked to the public. As was his custom, he responded by writing a 95-page pamphlet detailing the affair and its background. “The allegations against me relate to a certain James Reynolds and concern improper financial speculation. My real crime is a love affair with his wife which lasted for a considerable period of time with his knowledge and consent.”
Most of all, he wanted to dispel the clouds of doubt about corruption – the protection of privacy and family came second. For years afterwards, his wife Eliza was often the victim of public humiliation. Today, however, the “Reynolds pamphlet” stands as a unique example of a public admission of infidelity to a major public figure.
Recent years and background influence
Eliza was pregnant for the sixth time at the time. She retreated to her parents, burned her husband’s letters in anger, and finally forgave him. What is more, she devoted her life to caring for his public image and the reputation she believed he deserved for all the years he had sacrificed in the service of the nation.
Although he officially retired from politics, his influence on government policymaking continued for many years. Even if mostly from the background, Hamilton was part of all the major turning points. Increasingly, he became controversial and argumentative, even aggressive and abusive. More and more often, he even got away with some political misjudgement. Since the pen was his best weapon, he engaged in real wars of words, which often exhausted his opponents. But his encyclopaedic knowledge and ability kept him highly respected.
Among other things, he was even promoted to general during the brief crisis when war with France was imminent, and he pushed for a standing army. He issued detailed recommendations on uniforms and how soldiers should behave – as he had done years earlier when he helped Washington shape the presidency and its etiquette.
He advocated the establishment of military hospitals and is the father of the first military academy, the elite West Point. He even founded his own newspaper, The New York Evening Post – still published today as The New York Post. The newspaper served as the main instrument of attack on the hated Thomas Jefferson. When he became President in 1801, Hamilton’s political decline began.
The last years of his life were marked by a serious family tragedy. Philip, not yet twenty years old, was the darling of the family and in many ways a copy of his father, intelligent, handsome, independent and, above all, hot-blooded. He had a deep respect for his father and when a politician insulted him publicly, Philip challenged him to a duel. Duels were still a common way of defending honour in those days, but it was usually agreed in advance that the challengers would avoid taking a shot at their opponent. So they left the scene alive and with their honour intact. “Only” twenty percent of all duels therefore ended in death. The Hamiltons were not so lucky.
Hamilton Sr. advised his son to simply shoot in the air. But his opponent had other intentions. The young man fell to his fatal shot and bled to death the next night in front of his parents. The whole family was overwhelmed by immense grief and despair, and the eldest daughter went so mad with pain that she never recovered. Hamilton was never the same again. Often despondent and despairing, he turned to his faith and devoted more and more time to his wife and family. He began to build an estate and to garden. “You know, a garden is a very useful refuge for a disillusioned politician”, he wrote to a friend.
As his life was, so was his death. Spectacular.
It was 1804, and Hamilton once again found himself at odds with one of the constant rivals with whom he had shaped the destiny of America in its early years. Aaron Burr, a calculating politician who often turned on the wind to suit his own personal interests, was then Jefferson’s vice-president. Burr and Hamilton’s rivalry marked their entire careers. They even had similar life paths, both orphans, heroes of the American Revolution, brilliant lawyers with successful political careers. But ever since Washington favoured Hamilton, Burr has been jealous of him. And when Hamilton allegedly insulted him publicly, the duel was on again.
As fate would have it, Alexander Hamilton fell to Burr’s bullet in the same place as his son, on the west bank of the Hudson River in New Jersey. They were using the same pistols as Philip and his opponent three years earlier. Hamilton used the same tactic he had advised his son to use – instead of shooting at his opponent, he shot into the air. But Burr had different intentions, he aimed carefully and fired. Later, rumours surfaced that he had practised target practice before the fight.
In any case, he ruined his career and the rest of his life with this cold-blooded act, because America has never forgiven him.
Hamilton died in agony at home. At his deathbed, he and Eliza gathered with their seven remaining children, looked at each one individually and turned away in silent pain. His last words were to the country that adopted him as a teenager: “If they break this union, they will break my heart.”
Hamiltonmania yesterday and today
Hamilton became a martyr because of the way he died. Americans mourned his death as they mourned the death of George Washington. New York was enveloped in grief, shops were closed, people wore black armbands.
But the legacy of the father of American capitalism is immortal. In every field he tackled, he left a huge mark. But his America was the America of white and white rich men. The creators of the musical have also tried to make a point – that the issue of racial equality has always been close to the surface in the USA and remains so today. That is why the cast of the Broadway hit is racially mixed and neither Washington, Burr nor Hamilton are white. Women also feature prominently.
So perhaps 21st century America is once again being overwhelmed by “Hamiltonmania” precisely because the revival of the Hamilton myth is intertwined with current social issues such as immigration, racial inequality and gender inequality. So let someone else rise from oblivion if it will help to raise collective awareness of the pressing social issues of the present.
